Indian Society During British Rule

Indian Society During British Rule!

Society:

Few centuries of Muslim rule in India before the establishment of British rule, did not contribute to close social rela­tionship between the Hindus and the Muslims, nor was the relation between these two major communities based on social give-and-take.

There is no denying the fact that to the Hindus the Muslims were invaders who came from outside and deprived them of their indepen­dence; and this historical fact contributed largely to hinder the growth of social unity. Further, the fact that most of the Indian Muslims were converts from the so called lower classes of the Hindu society also stood in the way of social unity between the two com­munities.

As a result of living side by side there grew among the Hindus and the Muslims behavioural friendliness no doubt, but during the first half of the eighteenth century there was very little of what we understand by social give and take. For the Hindus it was sacrilege to take food or drink at the hands of the Muslims.

But it must be mentioned here that in respectable Muslims families arrangements for cooking food by Hindu cooks were made to enter­tain Hindu guests. Hindu mendicants, Muslims Pirs, folk songs by Hindus and Muslims as also certain social entiquettes of both the Muslims and the Hindus used to be respected, sung and followed both by the Hindus and the Muslims.

From Siyar ul Mutaqherin, written towards the end of the eighteenth century what we know about the social relationship of the Hindus and Muslims, in fact, remained unchanged even during the first half of the nineteenth century. According to Gholam Husain, author of Siyar towards the end of the eighteenth century the Hindus kept themselves aloof from other communities and their social and religious customs were such that they virtually looked upon the Muslims as foreigners and from the religious point of view fit to be discarded.

Yet, even Gholam Husain observes that long stay side by side by the Hindus and Muslims brought them nearer to one another and they came to consider themselves as children of the same mother. “We see that this dissimilarity and alienation have terminated in friendship and union and that the two nations have come to coalesce together into one whole like milk and sugar that has received a simmering.” Thus if exaggeration in Gholam Husain’s remarks be over­looked, long stay side by side developed, between the Hindus and the Muslims mutual respect and friendliness although there was lack of social relationship.

In the Hindu society the rigidity of caste system still persisted in the nineteenth century. Untouchability, lack of freedom on the part of the females, superstition etc. were the banes of the nineteenth cen­tury Hindu society.

After the establishment of the British rule in India and the end of Muslim political authority, the former attitude of the Muslims to look upon the Hindus with the arrogance of the ruling class and as inferior .citizens gradually died out. The realization that both the Hindus and the Muslims were equally subject to the foreigners— the British, and their economic and political fate was similar indirectly helped to develop a feeling of good will and friendliness among the two communities although they continued to remain apart.

Besides the Hindus and the Muslims, there grew up a third com­munity in India then, namely the British. This new community emerged in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras and the surrounding areas. Needless to mention that this community was far less numerous com­pared to the two other communities the Hindus and the Muslims, but their belonging to the ruling class and their political power re­moved their weakness in numerical strength. In Bengal where the British had established their authority first and spread English educa­tion there developed some measures of social fraternisation between the English and the Bengalees.

The English men adopted the custom of rubbing oil on their bodies, smoke from hubble-bubble and attend Hindu religious functions. Friendly behaviour with the Bengalees, speaking in Bengali etc. became the characteristics of the English community in Bengal. When as a result of the Charter of 1813 there was no bar to the Christian missionaries’ coming to India, they began to play an important part in the social life of the Bengalees. The missionaries were more than any other Europeans, friendly and sympathetic towards the Indians.

Some of the highbrowed Englishmen did not, however, hesitate to make offensive remarks about the character and manners of the Bngalees. Name of Charles Grant deserves special mention in this regard. He painted the Bengalees in black. According to him the Bengalees were more backward than the most backward people of Europe. He noticed only dishonesty, corruption, selfishness and lack of good conscience among the Bengalees. Lord Coriywallis, Lord Macaula, Mr. Ward and some other English men made more or less similar remarks.

But if we take note of Bishop Herber’s remarks about the Bengalees and the Indians, it will be obvious that Charles Grant and others of his way of thinking were not dispassionate in their observations about the Bengalees in particular and the Indian in general. According to Bishop Herber “They are a nation, with whom whatever their faults, I, for one, shall think it impossible to live long without loving them—a race of gentle and temperate habits, with a natural talent and acuteness beyond the ordinary level of mankind and with a thirst of general knowledge which even the re­nowned and the inquisitive Athenians can hardly have surpassed or equaled”.

It is worthwhile to refer here to the answers given by Ram Mohan Roy to question put to him by the Select Committee of the British Parliament in 1931. He said in reply to a question regarding the morality of the Indians that the Indian peasants, common people who lived far away from towns and cities, away from the law courts and contacts of foreigners were not only innocent, temperate and honest, and were no less sound morally than the people of any other country. The honesty, simplicity, morality and strength of character were even greater.

Those who lived in towns and cities, nearer to law courts and in contact with foreigners and their manners and customs, became crooked, immoral, liars and irreligious. Compared to the rural people their character was of lower standard. Those who earned their livelihood as clerks of lawyers, moktars etc. and by using their wit, were dishonest, untruthful, and had no strength of character. But despite this generalization there were people in towns and cities who were honest, truthful, of unimpeachable character and were engaged in honourable professions.

It has to be mentioned here that the fraternal relation that had developed between the Indians and the English men later on began to be gradually lost and the English assumed the arrogance of the ruling class.

Middle Class:

By the Charter Act of 1833 the East India Company was transformed from a business organisation into a political institution. As the Company was debarred from functioning as a business organisation and trade in India was thrown open to the Europeans many European capitalists came to India and invested their capital. This increased the Indian import and export trade manifold. In this commercial growth, the share of the Indians was negligible.

Whatever share the Indian had in it, the major portion was in the hands of the Marwaris, Mughals and the Parsis. Next to these three communities came the Bengalees. With the spread of trade and commerce there was the rise of naibs and gomatthas, brokers, accountants etc. and with the rise in the number of cases, and spread of education there was increase in the number of the law­yers, teachers, doctors, etc. People of these different professions cons­tituted the middle class which became a very strong section of the society. The most important effect of the British administration was the end of the importance, social status and power of the former ruling class, of the Brahmins learned in Sastras and the rise of new social divisions.

As an inevitable result of the establishment of the British rule in India and particularly as a result of close contact with the European merchants and missionaries there was a great change in the social attitudes and mentality of the Indians. This change began from the second half of the eighteenth century and continued all through the nineteenth century. The impact of the Western education and culture on the Indian society continued, to be deeper and wider.

The resultant change began at first in Bengal and then spread to other parts of India. In place of former social divisions new class divisions began to rise. Despite difference in wealth, education, profession, the people belonging to different communities formed a new class which came to be known as the middle class. As the middle class in the West had brought about the end of feudalism and the authority of the Church, and established the social, economic and individual liberty, economic individualism and freedom of competition, the Indian middle class if did not succeed in equal measure had contri­buted to these fields in an appreciable measure. In the spread of nationalism among the Indians and in winning freedom of the coun­try the contributions of the middle class was quite large.

Inhere were two factors that contributed to the rise of middle class in India; these were,

(i) The end of the feudalistic mentality and behaviour due to the abolition of tire former ruling class,

(ii) Rise of new land-owning class, new merchant, trading and intellectual classes.

The rise of the middle class was also due to the trade and commerce and industrial activities of the Europeans in India. Naturally, Calcutta, Bombay and Madras first saw the rise of the middle class. These cities were the first to get the opportunity of Western education and Outlook as also the taste of Western city life. Merchants, industrial entrepreneurs, capitalists, technologists, people who were experts in export and import trade first made Calcutta the centre of their activities and naturally of the three Presidencies, Calcutta had greatest importance.

The middle class emerged first in towns and cities but gradually this class also began to grow in villages. As a result of the Perma­nent Settlement whereas the number of large estate holders was only twenty thousand, that of small landholders was one lac thirty thousand in Bengal. The owners of big estates came over to tows for luxurious living while the small landholders, continued to remain in villages and they formed the nucleus of rural middle class. To this class were added the naibs, gomasthas, money-lenders, darogas, etc. of the villages.

For administrative necessities the British had to encourage the spread of English education and educated Indians were appointed in the service of the Company. These service holders, contractors who undertook to construct roads, buildings etc. others who took service under the merchants added to the number of the middle class of the urban areas. The contractors, small scale business men, dalals, banians etc. although not highly educated earned enough money and came to be known as the Baboo class who lived a riotous life with lavish expenditure.

It has to be mentioned here that the British did not desire the growth of statesmen, intellectuals, persons who could give leadership to the nation, or persons fit for high military posts. Thackeray remarked “We do not want generals, statesmen, and legislators” from among the Indians. Rise of persons of such capabilities from among the Indians was undesirable from the point of view of quiet British rule over India.

But with the spread of Western education, the doctors’ arid engi­neers, the lawyers and moktars, teachers and industrial entrepreneurs, government and non-government service holders completed the rise of the middle class in India, particularly in Bengal. This middle class became conscious of their rights and status, of the need for progress, and a boldness characterized their political attitude. The obstacles put in the way of their self-expression by the ruling class made them nationally conscious and prepared for national movement. It became clear to the middle class that the only means of the social, political and economic emancipation of the Indians was the ending of foreign rule.

Economy:

British Empire in India originated and developed in the wake of East India Company’s commercial activities. Naturally till such time that the administration of the British empire was transferred from the hands of the Company to the British Crown, profit making was the only motivation of the administration. In the state system of every country there is an economic ideal which is welfare of the people under it.

But under the Company’s rule there was no such economic ideal, on the contrary lack of patriotic feeling among the people at that time and difference of opinion and mutual distrust offered opportunities to the Company to expand its dominion as also to exploit the people. The Company did not follow any economic policy that was conducive to the wellbeing of the people. The only economic policy that the Company had was the policy of exploitation.

India was considered to be a mart for the supply of raw materials which would be transformed into manufactured goods and sent back to India for sale. Imports of machine-made goods from England ousted the products of the small and cottage industries of India and these industries died out. As the small and cottage industries died out a large number of people was thrown but of employment and pressure on agricultural land increased manifold.

The English naturally considered the development of agriculture or industries against their interest; they only encouraged cultivation of cash crops like opium, indigo etc. by dadan system, that is by giving advance to the cultivators, thereby dictating prices which was too meagre for the cultivators who became poorer and poorer while the English derived great profit by exporting opium and indigo.

The indigo cultivation in India constitutes a shameful chapter of selfishness and inhumanity on the part of the European who ran indigo factories in India, mostly in Bengal. They earned huge pro­fits from export of indigo but paid not even the cost of cultivation to the tyots. They forcibly extended the area of indigo cultivation and carried on inhuman torture on the cultivators if they would fail to supply the crop in time or refuse to cultivate indigo. The ruthlessness of the Indigo Planters ultimately led to Indigo rebellion. With the invention of synthetic indigo in 1895 the indigo cultiva­tion was gradually abandoned.

The Permanent Settlement, loss of employment in small and cottage industries made people dependent on land in a larger number. There was naturally heavy pressure on land, which increased all the more due to the cultivation of cash crops like tea, opium, jute etc. A class of middle men grew up who purchased the agricultural pro­duce from the cultivator? at low cost but sold them at much higher cost earning good profits, The village moneylenders provided loans to the cultivators at very high rate of interest. As a result of the exploitations by the middle men and the money lenders the condi­tion of the cultivators continued to be miserable.

Lavish administrative expenditure by the British, led to heavy taxation on the Indians. In 1860 the governor of Madras Travelyan protested against the lavish administrative expenditure by the government, but Mr. Wilton, member of the Viceroy’s Executive Council in charge of finance held a contrary opinion. The British government endorsed the views of Wilson. Increase in government expenditure is not detrimental to the interest of the people if the expenditure is made for productive purposes and for the welfare of the people.

But the British government spent the revenue mostly for meeting the expenses of the army, payment of salaries of government officials and of interest on government loan. Revenue earned by taxing’ the people was not spent for their benefit. Dadabhai Nauroji vehemently opposed the spending of the revenue realized by taxation of the Indians for the benefit of the foreigners, i.e. the English. In a memorandum to the Select Committee in 1897 he raised this question.

Duke of Devonshire, Sir William Hunter and some others pointed out that if the government expenditure was made for the benefit of the foreigners, then the condition of the people would become extremely miserable. Earlier in 1880 Sir William Hunter said that India was not in a position to spend in proportion to the British administra­tion at home, for the administration of India.

The spending in India must be commensurate with the standard of living of the people of India. Yet at that time a very big amount used to be spent for each of the English civil and military officer in India. An idea how the administrative expenditure of the British Indian government was increasing may be had from the comparison between the expenditure in 1850-51 and 1860-61, as also 1904-05. Whereas in 1850-51 the total expenditure was 26 crores 93 lacs, in 1960-61, 46 crores 92 lacs, in 1904-05 it reached 101 crores 47 lacs. Whereas in Britain only of the revenue income was spent for administration in India it was 14%.

For the construction of the Indian railways British capital was invested; the profit as well as the interest on the invested capital used to go to England. Not only that, all expenses under the East India Company for the purposes of conquest of territories, adminis­trative expenditure, loans taken in the name of the Indian govern­ment, all expenses of the East India Company’s London office had to be met from the Indian revenue.

In 1858 when the British Crown assumed the charge of the Indian government from the hands of the Company, the compensation paid to the Company was treated as debt of the India government. The compensation money was raised from English as loan, the interest for which had to be annually sent to England. All these expenditures called Home Charges which consti­tuted a large amount, had to be sent to England every year out of the revenue of India.

Chief exponent of the Indian public opinion against the economic exploitation by the British was Dadabhai Nauroji. It was Dadabhai who termed the spending of the major portion of the revenue raised by taxing the Indians for the interest of the British as un-British and raised his voice against it.

The Indian National Congress also was opposing and repeatedly protesting against the drainage of Indian wealth to Britain, heavy pressure of land revenue and taxes, increase in national debt, shortage of food, abject poverty of the common people etc. Educated Indians supported the Congress demand for reduction of land revenue, abolition of tax on cotton cloth, and salt, exemption of land revenue in years of natural calamities, spending of the surplus over the expenditure of income for the welfare of the people. R. C. Datta, Gokhale vehemently opposed the faulty and irrational economic policy of the government. The realization by the Indians that the only remedy of the economic distress of the people was the ending of foreign rule had naturally pushed them into the national movement against the British.

New Industries:

Among the industries that grew up under the British rule production of raw jute and jute bags became very important. During the middle of the nineteenth century jute mills were set up in different parts of India, mostly in Bengal, in imitation of Dundee. In Bengal jute mills were set up at Rishra, Baranagar, Gouripore, Sirajganj etc. In 1885 the Indian Jute Mill Association was founded for supervision of the Jute Mills. From that time although the jute industry had faced problems from time to time it maintained its progress. In the field of Indian economy the pro­gress of Jute Mill industry conduced to the welfare of the Indian cultivators to some extent.

Production of tea and coffee was another important industry. In l823 Robert Bruce, an Englishman discovered tea plants in the jungles of Assam and that was the beginning of the history of the tea cultivation in India. By 1856 the total production of tea in India reached 8, 72,431 pounds. Within ten years the production reached one million pounds, and by 1920 the production exceeded 340 million pounds. The growth of tea industry brought profits to the English men who were the owners of tea gardens. The Indians served in tea gardens only as clerks and labourers, the high ranking officers being all English men.

Among other industries textile, iron and steel grew up due to Indian enterprise. Till the end of the eighteenth century India used to export a huge quantity of calico prints and cotton piece goods. In 1793 calico prints worth more than 67 lacs of rupees had been exported. But with the Industrial Revolution in England and import of cheap machine made cloth the Indian textiles produced by small and cottage industries went out of the market, for these could not stand competition with the machine made goods. It was by the middle of the nineteenth century that the Indians started setting up cloth mills, for that was the only way to revive the cloth industry of India. In 1853, Cawasji Nanabhai set up the first textile mill in Bombay. Within seven years there were seven cloth mills in Bombay and three in Ahmedabad. Compared to Bombay the number of cotton mills in Bengal was very small.

For in 1872 when Bengal had only two cotton mills, Bombay had eighteen. Within next fifteen years the textile industry in India developed considerably and there were as many as 137 textile mills in India. The government in order to compete with the Indian made cloth reduced the tariff duty on British made cloth. But during the First World War when it became difficult to import cloth from England the Indian textile industry found its opportunity to develop. From that time onward the textile industry in India was progressing towards self-sufficiency.

The initial attempt at establishing iron and steel factory in India was not successful (1808). But from 1874 the iron and steel industry began to develop. In that year Barakar iron and steel factory was established. In 1889 Bengal Iron and Steel factory was founded. But the most important step was taken in 1907 when the Tata Iron and Steel factory was established by Jamshedji Tata. With the establishment of this factory the history of a great future for iron and steel production in India began. During the First World War the opportunity for the Tata Company naturally increased manifold.

Apart from the above industries, mining industry, paper and sugar industries which were the ancient industries of India were mechanized from the end of the nineteenth century.

For a vast country as India with its huge population, and the availability of raw materials, what the British did during their rule was very meagre. The poverty of the Indians, backwardness of the Indian agriculture, unwillingness of the British government to develop Indian industries were all the results of the policy of exploitation followed by them.

Education:

The greatest and the most important contribution of the British to the national life of the Indians was the spread of Western education. With the spread of Western education in India, particularly in Bengal, the traditional sense of values regarding religion, education, culture and sense of beauty underwent a change and new sense of values developed. Before the advent of the British the Indian educational system depended on the munificence of the wealthy Hindus and Muslims who paid for the pathsalas and maktabs.

The purpose of that education was to enable the people to keep the accounts of agriculture and small business. Higher education then meant study of philosophy, logic, astrology, ayurveda etc. As under the Muslim rule many Hindus learnt Persian and Arabic in order to get appointment in the administration, likewise under the British the Hindus, mainly, acquired knowledge of English in the hope of getting jobs under the British. Towards the end of the eighteenth century the native princes also tries to acquire knowledge of English. From Mr. Heber we know that Sadat Ali of Oudh, Nawab Samsu-daulah of Dacca could speak in English and the latter could even write tolerably good English.

Coming in close touch with the English and realizing that for personal prospect, government service, business etc. the knowledge of English was of utmost importance the Bengalees became very earnest about acquiring knowledge of English. It was in Bengal that the British rule was first established and naturally need for learning English arose first in Bengal. In 1800 a school was established in Bhowanipore for teaching English.

In 1814 the Magistrate of Chin- surah, Mr. Forbes established a school for teaching English. Three years later the Hindu School of Calcutta Was established (1817). To meet the need for English education, English books were necessary. This was met by the School Book Society which was established in 1817; the name was changed to Calcutta School Society next year. The European Secretary of this Society was David Hare and the Indian Secretary was Raja Radhakanto Deb.

In spreading English education among the Bengalees, the con­tribution of Hindu School (later Presidency College) was greatest. It was established on January 20, 1817 by the efforts of Baidyanath Mukherjee. He met the Chief Justice Sir Hyde East and impressed on him the eagerness of the Bengalees to receive English education. In this connection a meeting of a number of respectable persons of Calcutta was held in the residence of Sir East and a subscription of fifty thousand rupees was raised. Next year the Hindu School was established. There is no historical truth in the popular belief that Ram Mohan Roy was one of the founders of the Hindu School. In fact, Sir Hyde East did not know Ram Mohan Roy.

By the time when the British government adopted it as a prin­ciple to spend government money for English education in 1835, there were already 25 English schools in Calcutta. There were also many such schools outside Calcutta. In 1836 Lord Macaulay re­marked that only in one town in Bengal as many as 1400 students were receiving English education.

In the meantime in 1818 the missionaries of Serampore had established the Baptist Mission College. In 1830 Sir Alexander Duff founded the General Assemblies Institutions which later became the Scottish Church College of Calcutta. Ram Mohan Roy helped him in establishing this institution.

In 1813 the Charter Act provided for the spending of at least a lac of rupees annually for the development of education and morals of the Indians. But nothing was done till 1823. In that year a Committee of Public Instruction was set up in Bengal. This Committee set up the Calcutta Sanskrit College. Ram Mohan Roy in a memo­randum to Lord Amherst, the Governor-General argued forcefully that instead of spending the amount as provided for in the Charter Act of 1813 for Sanskrit and other Oriental studies, it must be spent for the spread of Western literature, science, anatomy etc.

The British government paid no heed to Ram Mohan’s demand and began to spend the money for the study of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian languages and literature. But gradually the eagerness of the Indians to receive Western education had its impact on the Committee of Public In­struction, as a result of which the members of the Committee were divided into two groups one Orientalists supporting Oriental studies and the other Anglicists supporting English education. Inclusion of Alexander Duff as a member of the Committee strengthened the hands of the Anglicists.

In 1834 Thomas Babington Macaulay was appointed President of this Committee which assured the success of the Angli­cists. In February, 1835, Governor-General Lord William Bentinck decided that the government money would be spent for the spread and development of English education among the Indians. In the same year Lord Bentinck established the Calcutta Medical College.

The policy of appointing government servants through competi­tive examination adopted by Lord Harding all the more helped the spread of English education. Gradually, good knowledge of English language became the primary condition for appointment in govern­ment service.

The main defect of the spread of English education was that too much emphasis was laid on secondary and higher education rather than on primary education through mother tongue. As a result, the education of the common people had greatly suffered compared to the education of the middle class. Lord Bentinck appointed William Adam to examine the condition of the primary education and submit report on it.

Three reports were submitted by Mr. Adam in 1835, 1836 and 1838 in which he mentioned the miserable condition of the primary education of the common people and the stupendous problem of illiteracy. The government, however, relied on filtration theory and believed that gradually the English education would filtrate among the people of the country. The government, therefore, did nothing on the reports of Mr. Adam.

From 1835 for nearly twenty years there was no organizational arrangement made for the spread of the English education. In 1854 the President of the Board of Control Sir Charles Wood prepared a plan for the future expansion of English education in India. He forwarded this plan to India government, which is famous as Wood’s Despatch of 1854. Sir Wood believed that the English were a superior race of people to the Indians and any other race in the world and in matters of education or in airy other matters the English systems were the only systems fit to be followed. Insofar as English education in India was concerned Wood’s Despatch is regarded as the Magna Carta.

In Wood’s Despatch it was specifically laid down that the aim of English education in India was introduction and expansion of Euro­pean sciences and knowledge, arts, philosophy and literature among the Indians, and for that purpose English language was the best medium. Sir Wood, however, did not overlook the importance of the Indian vernaculars in the spread of European science and know­ledge among the Indians. For this reason he recommended in his despatch that at the lowest level of education in villages, i.e. primary education, should be given in vernacular, in the next higher stage in schools both English and vernacular should be taught, and at the collegiate level the medium of instruction should be English alone.

He also directed that in order to encourage the establishment of schools and colleges on private initiative, grant-in-aid system should be introduced. Sufficient attention was to be given to the appointment of suitable teachers in such schools and colleges. To bring the entire educational system under the supervision of the government a Depart­ment of Public Instruction was opened in each of the five provinces of the time and one Director of Public Instruction was appointed in each. In Wood’s Despatch directive for the establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras on the model of London University was given.

There were to be one Chancellor, one Vice-Chancellor, a Senate and Fellows in every university to be nomi­nated by the government. The universities were to appoint lecturers and professors of different departments, hold examinations and grant degrees. Wood’s Despatch also emphasised establishment of technical, engineering schools and colleges. For the teachers’ training, schools and colleges after the English model were recommended to be set up. Wood’s Despatch also laid emphasis on female education.

It goes without saying that Wood’s Despatch contemplated an Educational system for India which was a copy of the English system. And this was the system that was in force till independence. Even after independence, the system cannot be said to have been completely changed. Between 1854 and 1882 a large number of schools and colleges was founded on private initiative; in 1857 the Univer­sities of Calcutta, Bombay” and Madras were established, but by 1882 the number of the universities reached 72. Within the nineteenth century two more universities, those of Lahore and Allahabad were established.

In 1882 the government appointed an Education Commission with Sir William Hunter as President to report on the extent to which Wood’s Despatch had been worked out and to recommend how best the education system could be improved. The primary object of this Commission was, however, to examine the condition of the primary education and to suggest improvement.

Among the main recommendations of Hunter Commission were:

(i) The government should pay more attention to primary education, for primary education was the only source of mass education. But primary education was being grossly neglected. Only 15% of the male population of the country was covered by the primary edu­cational system. The report, therefore, recommended that the govern­ment must not leave expansion of primary education to private initiative but come forward to do so on government responsibility. The District Board, Municipal Board etc. must be involved in ex­pansion and control of primary education. For this purpose these local self-governing institutions must be permitted to raise funds by levying tax.

(ii) Hunter Commission recommended that emphasis should not be laid on general education up-to the university level, but emphasis must also be laid on technical and commercial education.

(iii) In order that schools and colleges might be established in larger number on private initiative, the government must liberalize the grant-in-aid scheme. Further, government must gradually with­draw its control and supervision of secondary and collegiate education.

(iv) The Commission drew the pointed attention of the government to the extremely backward position of female education and recommended extension, of facilities of female education, particularly in rural areas.

During the next twenty years there was remarkable expansion of secondary and collegiate education. Establishment of schools and colleges and increase in the number of students both male and female. Along with general education, professional education, technical education etc. were also spreading. But the main defect of this system of education was that it laid greater emphasis on higher education neglecting the primary education. This educational system thus may be called Inverted Pyramid.

During the last part of the nineteenth century and the first part of the twentieth we notice unplanned development of secondary and higher education and backwardness of primary education. As numerous schools and colleges were founded oh private initiative there was quantitative expansion but no qualitative improvement. Examination oriented education only became a means to obtain degrees. But with the development of nationalism its impact was felt on schools and colleges arid during the early years of the twentieth century schools and college’s became recruiting grounds of revolu­tionaries.

Lord Curzon considered the prevalent system of education, its lack of discipline, generated dissatisfaction and disaffection against the government. As the educational system, of the time was in the hands of the Indians mostly, it gave rise to an attitude of criticism of the government among the Indians. It was mainly due to Lord Macaulay that the Indian educational system became an inverted pyramid, emphasizing secondary and higher education, neglecting primary education.

In order to raise the standard of education and to bring discipline in educational institutions and students, as well as to make the educational system more fruitful from the British point of view, Lord Curzon passed certain Acts. Frankly speaking, the main object of Curzon was political and restricting the scope of education for the Indians. He sought to make education a means of instilling a sense of loyalty of the people to the government, thereby to strengthen imperialism and weaken the forces of nationalism.

In 1901 Curzon summoned a conference at Simla where some decisions about the educational system were taken. Pursuant to the decisions an Education Commission was appointed in 1902 with Sir Thomas Raleigh as president to enquire into the condition of educa­tion at the university level and to recommend changes in the con­stitution of the universities and their activities for their improve­ment. The primary and secondary education was kept out of, the purview of the Raleigh Commission.

On the recommendations of the Commission the University Act of 1904 was passed.

The provisions of this Act were:

(i) Members of the Senate i.e. Fellows, of any university must not be less than fifty and more than one hundred, and their term of office must not be more than six years. Before this Act, the Fellows could continue in office all through their life. Among the Fellows of the universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras 20 were to be elected and in other universities only 15 were to be elected. The rest of the Fellows were to be nominated,

(ii) The Act of 1904 gave the government power to amend, alter or add to the rules passed by the university Senates,

(iii) Government control over the nongovernment colleges was increased, and rules regarding affiliation of colleges were made more rigid. Besides, per­mission of the government in matters of granting affiliation was made obligatory,

(iv) The universities were not to be simply examining bodies but also postgraduate teaching and research institutions,

(v) In order to bring the colleges under greater control of the Univer­sities arrangements for the appointment of an Inspector of Colleges in every university were made and regular inspection colleges was made obligatory.

The Act of 1904 was severely criticized by the Indians both within the legislatures and without. Gopalkrishna Gokhale, Sir Asutosh Mukherjee protested against this Act. But it was Sir Asutosh who took advantage of the opportunity provided by the Act of 1904 to impart post-graduate education and made Calcutta University the premier university in whole of Asia.

Female Education:

The influences and attitudes which con­tribute to the making of modern India, that of female education was quite important. During the first half of the nineteenth century a few schools for female education were established due to the initiative of the missionaries and few Indian aristocratic families. The con­servative families were, however, not in favour of female education. Female education in India spread due to the initiative of the Western educated liberal minded Indians. During the first half of the nine­teenth century female education did not make much headway. Ram Mohan Roy was a great advocate of female education.

The Brahmo Samaj also contributed much in this regard. In creating an urge and mentality for female education, the journals like Umesh Chandra’s Bamabodhini, Dwarakanath Ganguly’s Abalabandhab, Girish Chandra Sen’s Mahila, Swarnaikumari’s Bharati and Kumudini, Basanti Mitra’s Suprabhat and Bharat Mahila etc. played a very important part. The Mahakanya Vidyalay established by Arya Samaj in Jullundhar and many other girls’ schools established in different parts of India greatly helped to spread of female education in India. The contributions of Prarthana Samaj, the Daccan Education Society also deserve special mention in this regard.

Drinkwater Bethune, a member of Governor-General’s council and Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar were responsible for the establish­ment of the Hindu Balika Vidyalay in Calcutta in 1849 which was later named after Bethune as Bethune School and a College also came into being of the same name. In Wood’s Despatch there was a specific directive to encourage female education. But the government did nothing more than pay grant-in-aid to girls schools which grew up on private initiative. Yet mainly by private initiative by 1873 as many as 1640 girls’ schools were established in India.

In the next ten years the number increased manifold. Hunter Commission in its report recommended that the government, the District Board and the Muni­cipal Board must bear the expenses of female education. Henceforth, the government began to spend a little more liberally for female education. At the collegiate level co-education was introduced’ although some colleges for the girls were also established. By 1901-02 the total number of girls’ college numbered only 12, of which three, were in Bengal, three in Madras and six in Uttar Pradesh.

Spread of technical education and technical knowledge among the Indians was considered detrimental to the economic interest of the British. But with the spread of Western education among the Indians there was naturally an urge for technical and engineering education among them. Thus, although under the British the spread of technical education was negligible it could not be com­pletely ignored. In 1847 an engineering college was established at Rurki and in 1856 in Calcutta Writers’ Building an engineering college was started. Later it was shifted to Presidency College where- from it was transferred to Shibpur and was named Shibpur Engi­neering College.

In 1858 the Madras Presidency canon carrier manufacturing factory was converted into a full-fledged engineering college called Gindi Engineering College. This college was placed under the University of Madras. In the same year the Poona Over-searing School was converted into Poona Engineering College and placed under the University of Bombay.

Literature:

The impact of the Western education was felt on the modern Indian languages and literature. There was a revolu­tionary change in the literary thought process ideal of life etc. under the impact of the Western education. This impact was first noticed on Bengali literature. Bengali prose and poetic literature, drama, ; novel, short stories, essays, blank verse etc. were all deeply influenced by the Western education and culture during the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

Widening of imagination that was seen in Bengali literature and the new outlook that characterized it gradually spread to the literary activities of the different parts of India. It may be said without fear of contradiction that next to the English literature, the Bengali literature influenced the literature of the different parts of India. Impact of the works of Rabindranath, Bankim Chandra, Sarat Chandra was not confined to the Bengali literature alone, but it created a new outlook and imaginativeness in different regional literature of India. Works of Bankim Chandra, Sarat Chandra were translated into different regional vernaculars which led to their deve­lopment.

The printing press of the Serampore missionaries helped the spread and development of Bengali literature. Gradually printing presses were set up in Calcutta and in different parts of India and within next twenty years a large number of printing presses came up which enhanced the opportunity of the development of Indian vernacular literature. Further, as a result of easy communication with different parts of India there was naturally exchange of ideas which widened the horizon of imagination and extended the sphere of know­ledge which in their turn influenced the development of the regional literature of different parts of India.

The Christian missionaries in, their effort to spread the knowledge about Christianity among the Indians translated the Bible in regional languages and also published notes, dictionaries, grammars etc. They contributed much to the laying the foundation of the Bengali prose literature. William Carey’s Bengali grammar, Bengali-English dictionary were of great importance in this regard. Peary Chand Mitra produced Bengali books in spoken Bengali thereby paving the way for the development of Bengali prose.

The name of Mrityunjay Vidyalankar also needs special mention. Carey’s ltihasmala was an example of easy, facile Bengali prose. During the nineteenth century the Bengali works were mostly transla­tions from Sanskrit, English and Persian literature. But Ramram Basu’s Pratapaditya, Rajiblochan Mukherjee’s Krishna Chandra Roy, Mrityunjay Vidyalankar’s History of India from the Ancient times to Warren Hastings were original works.

In Bengali poetry nineteenth century is specially important. Beginning from Dasarathi Roy, poets like Iswar Chandra Gupta. Michael Madhusudan Datta, Rangalal Banerjee, Hemchandra, Nabin Chandra etc. enriched the fund of Bengali poetical literature. In these connection names of Dwijendranath Tagore, Beharilal Chakraverty, Surendranath Majumdar, Dwijendralal Roy, Kamini Roy etc. deserve mention. The Bengali prose and poetical literature reached its highest success and apogee in the works of Rabindranath Tagore.

In writing of novels Bhudev Mukherjee, Bankim Chandra, Peary-chand Mitra, Sanjib Chandra, Taraknath Ganguly, Ramesh Chandra Datta, Swarnakumari and Sris Chandra Majumdar’s names deserve special mention. Bankim Chandra and Madhusudan also made their mark by writing novels in English. Bankim Chandra’s Rajinohan’s Wife and Madhusudan’s Captive Ladie are two novels written by them in English which betray their deep interest in English language and literature as well as their command over English language.

That age was also important in production of drama. Ranarayan Tarkaratna’s Kulin-kula-swarvaswa, Madhusudan’s Sharmistha, Dinabandhu Mitra’s Nildarpan created a stir in Bengali literary world. Girish Chandra Ghosh was the most popular and the best dramatist of the time. Amritlal Basu, Dwijendralal Roy, Kshirod prasad Vidya-vinod were also reputed dramatists of the period.

The contribution of the contemporary journals was considerable in the development of Bengali language and literature. Devendranath Tagore’s Tattabodhini Patrika used to publish learned articles on various subjects written by Devendranath Tagore, Iswarchandra Vidyasagar, Dwijendranath Tagore, Keshab Chandra Sen etc.

Bankim Chandra’s Bangadarshan, Dwijendranath’s (later edited by Swarna­kumari) Bharati made important contributions to Bengali language and literature. Among the writers of the time mention may be made of Kaliprasanna Kavyavisarad, Joges Chandra Basu, Rajnarayan Basu, Sibnath Sastri, and many others whose literary works, and from the end of the nineteenth century the works of Rabindranath Tagore put Bengali language and literature on the status of world literature.

Apart from Bengali, Hindi, Urdu language and literature also had developed remarkably during that period. Urdu literature developed largely due to the contribution of Mohammad Iqbal while Hindi literature developed due to the contributions of Ramprasad Niranjani, Pandit Daulatram, Lalluji Lai, Sadal Misra, Harischandra Banarasi, Mathura Lai, Srinivas Das and other Hindi writers. Assa­mese, Telegu, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya and other languages and literature also developed during this period.

Indian Society, Economy, Literature and Culture Till 1947:

Society:

During the second half of the nineteenth century the work of social reforms, removal of superstition, introduction of female education, abolition of caste system etc. which had been largely accom­plished due to the efforts of Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Ramkrishna Mission etc. continued during the first half of the twentieth century. The national movement during this period all the more increased the urge for social reforms.

The anti-Partition movement of 1905 and the spread of nationalism through Indian National Congress made a deep impact on the Indian society and there were attempts at removal of untouchability, casteism, removal of the artificial social distinction between high and low. In 1911 Narayan Mai Joshi established the Social Service League in Bombay for raising the standard of living of the common people. A large number of night schools were established for the spread of education among the poor and the deprived section of the society.

The Social Service League organised many co-operative societies, arranged for the physical exercises and sports for the bustee dwellers and the labourers and thereby gave them a taste of a better and more enjoy­able life. Joshi also established the Indian Trade Union Congress for the improvement of the lot of the labourers. Hridaynath Kunzru. Sriram Bajpai and others by their efforts succeeded in improving the national life of the Indians. The name of Gopalkrishna Gokhale must be mentioned in this connection. For the improvement of the social life of the Parsis, Muslims, Sikhs etc. the contributions of Behramji Malabari, Sikh organisation Khalsa Dewan, Syed Amir Ali, Sir Mohammad Iqbal, Chirag Ali, Prof. Kshudabaksh deserve remem­brance with gratitude.

Sir Mohammad Iqbal, Chirag Ali, Prof. Kshudabaksh deserve remember of conservatism from the Indian society. In Bengal community wor­ship of goddess Durga was encouraged with a view to removing untouchability and rigidity of caste system, and also to develop a feeling of brotherhood among the Hindus of all castes. Female emancipa­tion, abolition of the purdah system and raising of the social status of women were also attempted.

During the twentieth century gradually the rigidity of caste system, casteism, untouchability etc. have been removed to a large extent. In participation of people of different castes in social and religious functions, in inter-caste marriages a new social consciousness is noticed. With the spread of nationalism women also began to take part in political movements. . The uplift of the backward classes is the most important social event of the present century. The suddhi movement initiated by the Arya Samaj opened a new avenue in this regard. In these diverse ways the conservatism of the Hindu society was being removed during the twentieth century.

Education:

In 1906 primary education was made compulsory in the state of Baroda. The national leaders demanded of the government that primary education, likewise, must be made compulsory in British India also Gopalkrishna Gokhale put up a very strong demand in the Central Legislature. But the government was unwilling to make primary education compulsory. The government directed the provincial govern­ment to introduce free primary education among the poor and back­ward classes of the society. Thus a huge number of the Indian children was deprived of the benefit of primary education.

In 1917 the government appointed a Commission with Dr. M.E, Saddler as President to examine the problems of the Calcutta Univer­sity and to make their recommendations. Dr. Saddler was the Vice- Chancellor of the Leeds University. Sir Asutosh Mukherjee and Dr. Zia-ud-din Ahmad were the Indian members on the Commission.

This Commission enquired into entire system of education from the secondary stage to the university stage and made their recommenda­tions. They based their recommendation on the principle that the secondary standard was the foundation of the university education. The Commission recommended that after 12 years in schools the students should enter the colleges, and that the Matriculation Ex­amination must be called Intermediate Examination.

The collegiate course of studies should be for three years and arrangements should be made for Honours studies by meritorious students. The Com­mission felt that instead of the university having to control colleges set up in far flung places, there should be a residential university for Bengal situated at Dacca. For the expansion of female education the Commission recommended the establishment of a Board of Women’s education under the University of Calcutta. The Calcutta University was also to arrange- for the study of applied sciences and technology. The Commission recommended that the rigidity of the rules of the Calcutta University should be relaxed.

By 1921 the universities of Dacca, Mysore, Patna, Aligarh, Osmania and Luck-now were established. By the Reforms Act of 1919 education was included in the transferred subjects of the provinces. The transferred subjects were such that if these were mismanaged, the people of India would suffer. Finance having been kept in the Reserved Subjects, adequate, funds were not allocated to education which was in charge of Indian minister.

This gave-the minister res­ponsibility without power and education did not thrive much under this system. Yet on the initiative of the Indians themselves many schools and colleges were set up which meant quantitative but not qualitative growth of education. In 1929 therefore, a Committee under the Chairmanship of Sir Philip Hertog was appointed to assess the progress of education in India. The Committee emphasized the importance of the primary education but observed that it would not be desirable to do anything in a hurry about it.

About the secondary education the Committee remarked that students of inferior calibre mostly, appear at the Matriculation Examination, it was therefore necessary to be selective in times of admission of students in High schools. The standard of the university student also suffered from the same defect and therefore only those who were fit to receive higher education should be admitted to the University.

In 1937 Mahatma Gandhi published his plan of Wardha Basic education in Harijan. Earning while learning by some kind of pro­ductive activity, teachers’ training, examination system etc. under the plan were explained by Zakir Hussain. The Congress government of different provinces tried to implement the Wardha scheme of education. When the Congress ministries resigned in 1939 the Basic education scheme also was abandoned.

In 1944 Sir John Sergeant, the education Secretary of the govern­ment of India prepared a scheme known as Sergeant Scheme in which he recommended the establishment of lower and upper basic schools and children between 6 and 11 years of age were to be compulsorily given basic education free of cost. Students between 11 and 17 years of age were to be given school education. Schools were to be of two types, schools for general education and schools for technical educa­tion.

In the Sergeant Scheme the Intermediate state was recommen­ded to be abolished and school education and collegiate education were to be extended by one year each. After independence a few Education Commissions were appointed. Radhakrishnan Commission (1948-49), was appointed with Prof. Radhakrishnan as President and on the recommendation of this Commission the University Grants Commission was set up in 1953 and it was given an autonomous status in 1956. In 1964-66 Kothari Commission was appointed which recommended a national educational policy. The Commission was also to advise the government about the improvement of education on all levels.

Culture:

The eagerness that characterized the Indians towards the second half of the nineteenth century for the revival of Indian heritage continued unabated during the twentieth century. In the field of cultural revival of All India Oriental Conference, Indian History Congress, Bhanderkar Research Institute, Bharat Itihas Sam-sodhan Mandal, Indian Historical Record Commission and Bangiya Sahitya Parkhad made considerable contributions.

In the twentieth century Rabindranath placed Bengali literature on the same status with the best literature of the world. His work Geetanjali was awarded nobel prize (1913) which raised the status of India in the comity of nations. Rabindranath apart, there were other writers whose works developed Bengali and other vernacular literature of India.

The Western education which helped the flowering of the Indian genius showed itself in philosophy, science, arts, music etc. In philo­sophy Sir Brojendranath Seal, Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan etc. occupied a high place of honour among the philosophers of the world. In science the Indian scientists such as Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose, Sir Chandra Sekhar Venkata Raman, Dr. Meghnad Saha, Prof. Satyendranath Basu, Raibahadur S. C. Roy, Dr. Bhaba enriched the fund of scientific knowledge by their original contributions. Sir C. V. Raman was awarded Nobel prize for his original contributions to science.

In the art of painting a renascent spirit is seen in the work of Abanindranath Tagore and Nandalal Basu. Abdur Rahaman Chaghtai, Kumarswami etc. also deserve special mention in this connection. It has to be mentioned here that in the Bombay school of art the influence of the Western art of painting was pronounced.

But in the revival of Indian art the contributions of Mr. E. B. Havell, Prin­cipal of Calcutta Art College and Kumarswami were very important. Along with the art of painting sculpture and architecture had also developed during the first part of the twentieth century. In Rajputana entirely Indian sculpture and architecture could be seen. The main characteristic of the Indian artists, sculptors, and architects of the twentieth century was their eagerness to revive fully Indian style in their work.

In the early years of the twentieth century patriotic songs were composed in the wake of the national movement. Bankim Chandra’s Bandemataram, Rabindranath’s Jadi tor dak shune, keu na ase, Cazi Nazrul Islam’s Durgamgiri Kantaramaru etc. brought about a wave of nationalism in Bengal. Mukunda Das by his popular folk songs spread the spirit of patriotism and nationalism among the rural people of Bengal. Rabindranath’s Janagana man adhinayaka jaya he has been adopted as India’s national song.

Apart from songs, dancing as an art was revived as one of the aspects of the Indian renaissance. In the revival of Indian dance and giving it a social status Rabiprdranath’s contributions were the greatest. Rabindranath’s Viswabharati, Travancore university, Kamrup Nritya Samgha of Assam, Kala Mandal of Kerala and many other organisations brought about the revival of the ancient Indian dance. Manipuri, Pahari, Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Chhau dance? Which were almost a forgotten art have been revived, and have now become a source of great cultural amusement. Dances of various kinds now occupy an important position in Indian cultural activities. In vocal and instrumental music also Calcutta, Bombay, Poona. Lucknow, Baroda, and many, other places of India are particularly noteworthy.

Economy:

We have seen that during the second half of the nineteenth century there was a tremendous pressure on agricultural lands; small and cottage industries had died out due to unequal competition of the British machine-made goods resulting in poverty of the people. The British did not make any effort for the improvement of agriculture, nor did they try to set up any industries, as these were contrary to their economic interests. They encouraged cultivation of commercial crops only.

It was under Lord Curzon for the first time that some steps were, taken for the improvement of Indian agriculture. He opened the Agricultural Department of the government and established in Pusa Research Institute (1903). He also prepared the ground for opening the Indian Agricultural Service in 1906 and for the establishment of Agricultural Colleges at Poona, Kanpur, Nagpur, Coimbator, and Laylapur etc. In 1912 the post of the Inspector General of Agricul­ture was abolished and the Director of Pusa Research Institute was appointed the agricultural adviser to the Government of India.

By the Reforms Act of 1919 agriculture was included in the Transferred Subjects under the provinces. But as the finance department was a Reserved Subject, adequate funds were not made available for agri­culture which naturally remained under-developed. In 1928 A Royal Commission on Agriculture was appointed which reported that there was immense possibility before the Indian agriculture, and the draw­backs of the Indian agriculture were pointed out by the Commission. On the basis of this report Imperial Council of Agricultural Research was established and the duty of advising and directing the means of improvement of Indian agriculture, and of carrying on research on domestic animals etc. was entrusted on it.

But despite all this, Indian agriculture did not thrive and the condition of the agriculturists went from bad to worse. In 1931 Central Banking Enquiry Com­mission clearly pointed out that communication gap between agricul­tural research and agriculturists was the main reason for the miserable condition of the Indian agriculture and agriculturists.

This apart, the heavy indebtedness of the Indian agriculturists which virtually made them slaves of the village money-lenders was another reason for this condition of the agriculturists. In 1931 the indebtedness of the Indian agriculturists was to the tune of 900 crore rupees. The India government, however, tried to meet the situation by granting agri­cultural loans to the agriculturists and in 1935-36 2 crores were granted as agricultural loan.

In an agricultural country like India, the need for irrigation cannot be over-stressed. Indian agriculture during the first quarter of the twentieth century depended entirely on natural rainfall. The famines of 1896 and 1901 impressed upon the government the need of drawing up plans to combat the evils of famine. A famine Com­mission was therefore appointed which recommended steps for irriga­tion in the Decan, Madras, Bombay, Central India, Bundelkhand. In 1919 irrigation was made a Transferred Subject and like all other Transferred Subjects it suffered from adequate financial help. Still some steps were taken during the years 1926 and 1934 when the Llyod Bund in Bombay, Sutlej project in Punjab, Sukkur Barrage in Sihd, Sarda-Oudh project in United Provinces (present Uttar Pradesh), Kaveri and Mettur projects, etc. were undertaken.

From the point of view of British interests development of In­dustries in India was not desirable. It was during the administration of Curzon that this attitude of the British was somewhat relaxed and the Imperial Department of Commerce and Industries was established. It was as a result of the Swadeshi movement that there was an urge among the Indians to set up different industries, mainly textile indus­try. In 1910 Lord Morley in a despatch directed the government of India not to encourage development of industries. Naturally what­ever industries began to slowly grow up, did at private initiative.

During the First World War an Industrial Commission was appointed which reported in 1918 recommending the need for industrial deve­lopment in India in quick and firm pace. For this purpose the Central and the Provincial governments were recommended to open an industrial department each. The business of the industrial department would be to help the industrial firms with finance and technological know-how, to encourage co-operation between industrial houses and to improve means of transport.

Fiscal Policy:

Hardly there had begun industrial development in India, competition of foreign goods started causing loss to Indian industries. It was, therefore, found necessary to adopt a fiscal policy. The British Indian government was authorized in 1921 to adopt its own fiscal policy. Before 1921 the British government in England used to deal with the subject. A Fiscal Commission was appointed by the government of India which adopted a policy of discriminating protection.

A Tariff Board was also established to decide which industries were entitled to protection. On the recom­mendation of the Tariff Board, cotton, iron and steel, paper, sugar, salt, matches and few other Indian industries were granted protection so that these might withstand the competition of such imported goods. In 1932 by Otowa Agreement the rate of tariff on England produced goods or goods produced in the colonies of England were lowered. This protected the interest of the British at the cost of India.

Excavation of Suez Canal in the second half of the nineteenth century (1869) and extension of roadways in India helped the growth of both internal and foreign trade of India. But during the First World War the volume of trade was considerably reduced.

The slump during the post-war years all over the world adversely affected the Indian trade and commerce. It was not until 1934-35 that Indian trade both internal and foreign looked up. But with the outbreak of the Second World War there was again a fall in the volume of trade. In this way Indian trade and commerce experienced ups and downs although generally speaking there was a gradual growth all the same.

Under the British rule the common people of India lived a life of poverty and deprivation. From the eve of the Second World War all through the period of war and after, people suffered terribly due to high prices, shortage of food, clothing and other essentials of daily life. In 1943 there was the outbreak of a terrible famine in Bengal which took a toll of 43 lacs of lives.

The miseries of the people were added to by the inhuman selfishness of profiteers, black marketers and hoarders. Failure of the government to hold the price line, to control profiteering and to import adequate quantity of food grains added to the distress of the people that beggared description.